Biblical Hebrew Poetic Structures in the LDS Standard Works

A short time after I began studying literature and poetry in high school I bought into the idea that poetry in every language almost always includes rhyming schemes and meter, defined as rhythmic sound and stress patterns. This is true in many types of traditional Western poetry, but it turns out that rhyme and meter are rarely used in Biblical Hebrew. In fact, both poetic elements are almost entirely absent in even the most style-rich books of the Old Testament, which include Psalms, Proverbs, Song of Solomon, Isaiah, and Lamentations. Instead, Old Testament authors frequently used other common poetic devices in their writings, such as:

Alliteration – The structured repetition of consonant sounds

Paronomasia – A verbal pun based on alliteration

Parallelism – The ordered use of phrases or sentences that are connected in meaning

Variations include:

                1) Synonymous parallelism – The rephrasing of themes or ideas in different ways

                2) Antithetic parallelism – The side-by-side placement of opposing themes and ideas

                3) Climactic parallelism – The intensification or building of a theme or idea at intervals

Chiasmus – A type of parallelism that inverts the order of related words, ideas, or sentence structures

Imagery – The use of similes, metaphors and other figurative language

These and other elements help define what constitutes poetic literature in Semitic languages, a group that includes Old Testament Hebrew. Although the primary value of scripture is its doctrinal content, it’s not surprising to me that the Lord often chooses to package truth in beautiful and creative forms (in other words, poetry). Arranging food on a plate in an artistic way enhances the entire dining experience. A drink from a wooded mountain stream satisfies the body and spirit more than water taken from the tap.  When dealing with scripture, style will never trump content, but poetic form can help God’s word navigate through the mind to reach the heart.

Just a few personal observations before exploring specific examples of poetic structures from the Old Testament, The Book of Mormon, and the Doctrine and Covenants:

1. After having read a good portion of the Old Testament in Hebrew, it seems that Biblical Hebrew writers used poetic devices much more often than Book of Mormon authors did. That being said, since we don’t have the original text that the latter was translated from, we don’t know for sure. I can only base my observations on the English translations of both books. What complicates the picture is that some poetic devices - alliteration and paronomasia, for example - are only detectable in the original language. Unfortunately we’ll have to wait until we’re able to study the Semitic language(s) the Book of Mormon prophets wrote in to completely understand how stylistically rich their writings are.

2. What we do know is that Book of Mormon authors were very familiar with all the non-phonetic structural devices that I listed at the beginning of my post since they appear frequently throughout the text. Nephi (the son of Lehi), King Benjamin, and Alma the Younger appear to have used them with more regularity than other New World prophet-writers. However, this may be because Mormon quoted these three authors directly in extensive passages, whereas he often just summarizes or abridges the writings of others.

3. From what I can tell, the Book of Mormon contains many more examples of poetic elements than the Doctrine and Covenants, which in turn includes many more than the Pearl of Great Price. This seems logical since the language(s) the Book of Mormon was translated from were Semitic in origin and closely related to Hebrew (see 1 Nephi 1:2 and Mormon 9:33). The Doctrine and Covenants would also be expected to include the frequent use of poetic devices since the Lord has perfect command of every language, plus He's the Master Teacher. Chiasmus, imagery and parallelism are especially effective at reemphasizing and “re-presenting” key doctrines and gospel principles, so these tend to surface most often in the Savior's teachings, including His revelations recorded in the Doctrine and Covenants. The Pearl of Great Price is a much shorter volume of scripture that focuses on the Creation, God’s interactions with Adam and Eve and their family, Jehovah’s communication with Abraham, and Joseph Smith’s firsthand account of the Restoration, so it leans towards a more straightforward presentation of religious principles and doctrines. 

4. As I mentioned above, poetic devices that we find in the scriptures typically involve the repetition of core doctrines, ideas, or teachings, packaged in different ways. This makes sense because learning is accelerated by repetition. The wonderful thing is that this principle operates on both the conscious and subconscious level. So even if the reader isn’t aware of repetition-based poetic components that are in play in a particular passage, the mind and spirit will still subconsciously pick up on key words and teachings that reoccur. As proof, in the previous sentence I included a section full of the alliterated use of the "p" sound: "repetition-based poetic components that are in play in a particular passage." Even if you didn't consciously recognize this example of alliteration the first time you read that phrase, your brain caught on to something unusual about it, possibly leading you to pause and/or reread it. 

Parallelism and imagery are the most common poetic elements found in the scriptures, so I’ll begin with examples of these two devices. And since it could be argued that the perfect marriage of both form and doctrinal content in the Old Testament is the book of Isaiah, I’ll start with his writings.

In Isaiah 44:3-4, the author seamlessly meshes imagery and synonymous parallelism. The first four phrases constitute a stanza of two couplets (distiches), followed by an isolated couplet that continues the metaphorical flow of the passage – that of water bringing forth life following drought.

(A1) For I will pour water upon him that is thirsty, (B1) and floods upon the dry ground:

(A2) I will pour my spirit upon thy seed, (B2) and my blessing upon thine offspring:

 And they shall spring up as among the grass, as willows by the water courses.

A1 = A2, and B1 = B2 are examples of Synonymous Parallelism, where the ideas are linked metaphorically, with the first line describing physical water and the second detailing spiritual blessings. The last couplet, which stands alone, is a simile that’s rooted in the same imagery.

In the following passage from the Book of Mormon (Alma 7:19-21), Alma the Younger uses parallelism in three consecutive blocks (verses), each of which has a distinct theme.

1st theme = You are on the path that leads to God.

(A1) For I perceive that ye are in the paths of righteousness;

(A2) I perceive that ye are in the path which leads to the kingdom of God;

(A3) yea, I perceive that ye are making his paths straight.

2^nd theme = God is invariably righteous.

I perceive that it has been made known unto you, by the testimony of his word, (preface statement)

(B1) that he cannot walk in crooked paths;

(B2) neither doth he vary from that which he hath said;

(B3) neither hath he a shadow of turning from the right to the left,

(B4) or from that which is right to that which is wrong;

therefore, his course is one eternal round. (closing bookend statement)

3^rd theme = God and spiritual filthiness are incompatible.

(C1) And he doth not dwell in unholy temples;

(C2) neither can filthiness or anything which is unclean be received into the kingdom of God;

(C3) therefore I say unto you the time shall come, yea, and it shall be at the last day, that he who is filthy shall remain in his filthiness.

The Lord Himself uses this instructive, repetition-based structure, as seen in 3 Nephi 30:2.

"(A1) Turn all ye Gentiles from your wicked ways; and (A2) repent of you evil doings."

The two phrases in this passage are synonymous since the verbs “turn” and “repent” are linked through the Hebrew verb lah-SHOOV לָשׁוּב , which means to repent, turn, turn away from, go back.

The next examples are of Antithetic Parallelism. One is a familiar poetic passage from Ecclesiastes Chapter 3 (it’s so familiar in part because the rock band The Byrds used it as the lyrical foundation for their 1965 hit “Turn! Turn! Turn!”), while the second scripture is from Proverbs 13:1-6.

To every thing there is a season,

and a time to every purpose under the heaven:

A time to be born,

and a time to die; (death is antithetical to birth, life)
a time to plant,

and a time to pluck up that which is planted; (weeding is the opposite of planting)

In the following verses from Proverbs, I’ve highlighted the opposing elements from each line (couplet).

A wise son heareth (obeyeth) his father’s instruction: but a scorner heareth not (pays no attention to) rebuke.

A man shall eat good by the fruit of his mouth: but the soul of the transgressors shall eat violence.

He that keepeth his mouth keepeth (saveth) his life: but he that openeth wide his lips shall have destruction.

The soul of the sluggard desireth, and hath nothing: but the soul of the diligent shall be made fat (healthy/abundant).

A righteous man hateth lying: but a wicked man is loathsome, and cometh to shame.

Righteousness keepeth (saveth) him that is upright in the way: but wickedness overthroweth the sinner.

The next verses, which come from the Book of Mormon, also include Antithetic Parallelism.   

The one raised to happiness according to his desires of happiness, or good according to his desires of good; and the other to evil according to his desires of evil; for as he has desired to do evil all the day long even so shall he have his reward of evil when the night cometh. (Alma 41:5)

In the next reference, the word-for-word parallelism only becomes antithetical (oppositional) once we get to the contrasting verbs and direct objects, which I've indentified with B and C labels. The phrases' subjects, or A labeled elements, are examples of synonymous parallelism:

Behold, my soul (A1)  abhorreth (B1) sin (C1), and my heart (A2) delighteth (B2) in righteousness (C2);  - 2 Nephi 9:49)

The next group of scriptural quotations demonstrate Climactic Parallelism, a device that can be more difficult to detect in some cases. Outlining these passages in staircase-form helps reveal this poetic element more clearly. The first example comes from Psalms 23. The staircase builds upward from left to right, culminating with a apex phrase (4) that makes the strongest statement in the thread.

                                                           (4) and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.

                                       (3) Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life:

                      (2) thou anointest my head with oil; my cup runneth over.

(Step 1) Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies:

In this passage, the statements detailing the Lord’s favor towards the author gradually escalate from simple protection, to anointing, to the extension God’s mercy, to entrance into His Kingdom.

The following Book of Mormon verse includes an illustration of “Descending” Climactic Parallelism.  Notice that each phrase describes a further step down the path that ends in complete spiritual destruction. (See Alma 12:11)

And they that will harden their hearts, (this statement defines the group that will be effected by the following consequences)

                (Step 1) to them is given the lesser portion of the word

                                (2) until they know nothing concerning his mysteries;

                                                (3) and then they are taken captive by the devil,

                                                                (4) and led by his will down to destruction.

Now this is what is meant by the chains of hell.(Concluding summary statement.)

The Lord's message to the spiritually unresponsive found in Doctrine and Covenants 43:5 is a much more complex example of Climactic Parallelism. Here He uses three subgroups of this poetic device within one verse, with each detailing a different way God calls us to repentance. Group A focuses on verbal preaching, Group B on physical warnings, and Group C lists spiritual enticements/rewards associated with repentance.

                                                                (3) and by mine own voice,

                                (2) and by the ministering of angels,

(Step 1) How oft have I called upon you by the mouth of my servants,

Servants are lower in rank than angels, who in turn are lower than God.

                                                                (5) and by the voice of famines and pestilences of every kind,

                                                (4) and by the voice of earthquakes, and great hailstorms,

                                (3) and by the voice of tempests,

                (2) and by the voice of lightnings,

(Step 1) and by the voice of thunderings,

                                 

The progression in Group B is from minor to major threats to human life and safety, with famine being the most severe.

                                                                                                                                                               

                                                                (5) and would have saved you with an everlasting salvation,

                                                (4) and by the voice of glory and honor and the riches of eternal life,

                                (3) and by the voice of mercy all the day long,

                (2) and by the voice of judgment,

(Step 1) and by the great sound of a trump,                        (6) but ye would not!                                                                                                                                                                                                 

Group C is a series of escalating spiritual invitations, including a call to enter into Eternal Life. Then in dramatic contrast, line 6 bluntly affirms that the wicked will ultimately reject God’s mercy. This type of literary structuring makes the final contrasting statement (# 6) all the more effective at capturing the reader's attention. 

Chiasmus (Inverted Parallelism)

Ezekiel 33:11 contains a simple chiasm that demonstrates the basic pattern of inverting the order of synonymous or related concepts.

Say unto them, As I live, saith the Lord God, (preface statement that’s not part of the chiasm)

(A) I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked; (“A” theme = God does not delight in punishing His children)

       (B) but that the wicked turn from his way and live: (“B" theme = God delights in saving the  penitent)

                                (Now the order is inverted.)

       (B) turn ye, turn ye from your evil ways; (Repentance message is “re”-presented again)

(A) for why will ye die, O house of Israel? (Same with the “A” theme now, using different wording)

This next example of chiasmus is much more complex in structure. It comes from the account of King Benjamin’s discourse found in the Book of Mormon. (See Mosiah 5:10-12)

 (A) And now it shall come to pass, that whosoever shall not take upon him the name of Christ

        (B) must be called by some other name; therefore, he findeth himself on the left hand of God.

                (C) And I would that ye should remember also, that this is the name that I said I should give unto you that never should be blotted out,

                             (D) except it be through transgression;                                                 

                             (D) therefore, take heed that ye do not transgress,

                (C) that the name be not blotted out of your hearts.

        (B) I say unto you, I would that ye should remember to retain the name written always in your hearts, that ye are not found on the left hand of God,

(A) but that ye hear and know the voice by which ye shall be called, and also, the name by which he shall call you.

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Additional Notes:

1) For a more comprehensive article on Biblical Hebrew poetic devices, visit this link: Biblical Poetry

2) This next link explores chiasmus in the Book of Mormon: Chiasmus in the Book of Mormon

3) I didn’t give examples of alliteration or paronomasia in this post because (like I mentioned earlier) these poetic elements can only be identified by reading passages in the original language, so we can’t pull examples from the Book of Mormon or the Pearl of Great Price for comparison's sake. Just to show how these elements function in Biblical Hebrew, I’ll give one example from The Old Testament. In 1 Samuel chapter 2, the prophetess Deborah records a beautiful prayer of praise that’s full of poetic elements, some of which are phonetically based. For example, in the 3^rd verse she uses a rhythmic cadence coupled with a rhyming scheme, a relatively rare occurrence in Biblical Hebrew. The sentence’s translation reads:

“Talk no more so exceeding proudly;” which literally means something along the lines of “Don’t enlarge or increase your speech to an exceeding height.” 

   אַל-תַּרְבּוּ תְדַבְּרוּ גְּבֹהָה גְבֹהָהAl tar-BOO teh-dah-BROO gah-VOH-ah gah-VOH-ah.

In the first part of the sentence we see the jumbled repetition of the T-B-R consonant cluster (alliteration) that turns into a play on words (paronomasia), with the word-pun being between speech and increase or excess (talking too much or arrogantly). This is followed by a case of reduplication, or the back-to-back repetition of a word to intensify its meaning. Deborah repeats the adjective gah-VOH-ah (which means “high,” “elevated,” or “lofty”) in order to add the idea of “very” or “exceedingly” to "high."