Biblical Hebrew Poetic Structures in the LDS Standard Works

A short time after I began studying literature and poetry in high school I bought into the idea that poetry in every language almost always includes rhyming schemes and meter, defined as rhythmic sound and stress patterns. This is true in many types of traditional Western poetry, but it turns out that rhyme and meter are rarely used in Biblical Hebrew. In fact, both poetic elements are almost entirely absent in even the most style-rich books of the Old Testament, which include Psalms, Proverbs, Song of Solomon, Isaiah, and Lamentations. Instead, Old Testament authors frequently used other common poetic devices in their writings, such as:

Alliteration – The structured repetition of consonant sounds

Paronomasia – A verbal pun based on alliteration

Parallelism – The ordered use of phrases or sentences that are connected in meaning

Variations include:

                1) Synonymous parallelism – The rephrasing of themes or ideas in different ways

                2) Antithetic parallelism – The side-by-side placement of opposing themes and ideas

                3) Climactic parallelism – The intensification or building of a theme or idea at intervals

Chiasmus – A type of parallelism that inverts the order of related words, ideas, or sentence structures

Imagery – The use of similes, metaphors and other figurative language

These and other elements help define what constitutes poetic literature in Semitic languages, a group that includes Old Testament Hebrew. Although the primary value of scripture is its doctrinal content, it’s not surprising to me that the Lord often chooses to package truth in beautiful and creative forms (in other words, poetry). Arranging food on a plate in an artistic way enhances the entire dining experience. A drink from a wooded mountain stream satisfies the body and spirit more than water taken from the tap.  When dealing with scripture, style will never trump content, but poetic form can help God’s word navigate through the mind to reach the heart.

Just a few personal observations before exploring specific examples of poetic structures from the Old Testament, The Book of Mormon, and the Doctrine and Covenants:

1. After having read a good portion of the Old Testament in Hebrew, it seems that Biblical Hebrew writers used poetic devices much more often than Book of Mormon authors did. That being said, since we don’t have the original text that the latter was translated from, we don’t know for sure. I can only base my observations on the English translations of both books. What complicates the picture is that some poetic devices - alliteration and paronomasia, for example - are only detectable in the original language. Unfortunately we’ll have to wait until we’re able to study the Semitic language(s) the Book of Mormon prophets wrote in to completely understand how stylistically rich their writings are.

2. What we do know is that Book of Mormon authors were very familiar with all the non-phonetic structural devices that I listed at the beginning of my post since they appear frequently throughout the text. Nephi (the son of Lehi), King Benjamin, and Alma the Younger appear to have used them with more regularity than other New World prophet-writers. However, this may be because Mormon quoted these three authors directly in extensive passages, whereas he often just summarizes or abridges the writings of others.

3. From what I can tell, the Book of Mormon contains many more examples of poetic elements than the Doctrine and Covenants, which in turn includes many more than the Pearl of Great Price. This seems logical since the language(s) the Book of Mormon was translated from were Semitic in origin and closely related to Hebrew (see 1 Nephi 1:2 and Mormon 9:33). The Doctrine and Covenants would also be expected to include the frequent use of poetic devices since the Lord has perfect command of every language, plus He's the Master Teacher. Chiasmus, imagery and parallelism are especially effective at reemphasizing and “re-presenting” key doctrines and gospel principles, so these tend to surface most often in the Savior's teachings, including His revelations recorded in the Doctrine and Covenants. The Pearl of Great Price is a much shorter volume of scripture that focuses on the Creation, God’s interactions with Adam and Eve and their family, Jehovah’s communication with Abraham, and Joseph Smith’s firsthand account of the Restoration, so it leans towards a more straightforward presentation of religious principles and doctrines. 

4. As I mentioned above, poetic devices that we find in the scriptures typically involve the repetition of core doctrines, ideas, or teachings, packaged in different ways. This makes sense because learning is accelerated by repetition. The wonderful thing is that this principle operates on both the conscious and subconscious level. So even if the reader isn’t aware of repetition-based poetic components that are in play in a particular passage, the mind and spirit will still subconsciously pick up on key words and teachings that reoccur. As proof, in the previous sentence I included a section full of the alliterated use of the "p" sound: "repetition-based poetic components that are in play in a particular passage." Even if you didn't consciously recognize this example of alliteration the first time you read that phrase, your brain caught on to something unusual about it, possibly leading you to pause and/or reread it. 

Parallelism and imagery are the most common poetic elements found in the scriptures, so I’ll begin with examples of these two devices. And since it could be argued that the perfect marriage of both form and doctrinal content in the Old Testament is the book of Isaiah, I’ll start with his writings.

In Isaiah 44:3-4, the author seamlessly meshes imagery and synonymous parallelism. The first four phrases constitute a stanza of two couplets (distiches), followed by an isolated couplet that continues the metaphorical flow of the passage – that of water bringing forth life following drought.

(A1) For I will pour water upon him that is thirsty, (B1) and floods upon the dry ground:

(A2) I will pour my spirit upon thy seed, (B2) and my blessing upon thine offspring:

 And they shall spring up as among the grass, as willows by the water courses.

A1 = A2, and B1 = B2 are examples of Synonymous Parallelism, where the ideas are linked metaphorically, with the first line describing physical water and the second detailing spiritual blessings. The last couplet, which stands alone, is a simile that’s rooted in the same imagery.

In the following passage from the Book of Mormon (Alma 7:19-21), Alma the Younger uses parallelism in three consecutive blocks (verses), each of which has a distinct theme.

1st theme = You are on the path that leads to God.

(A1) For I perceive that ye are in the paths of righteousness;

(A2) I perceive that ye are in the path which leads to the kingdom of God;

(A3) yea, I perceive that ye are making his paths straight.

2^nd theme = God is invariably righteous.

I perceive that it has been made known unto you, by the testimony of his word, (preface statement)

(B1) that he cannot walk in crooked paths;

(B2) neither doth he vary from that which he hath said;

(B3) neither hath he a shadow of turning from the right to the left,

(B4) or from that which is right to that which is wrong;

therefore, his course is one eternal round. (closing bookend statement)

3^rd theme = God and spiritual filthiness are incompatible.

(C1) And he doth not dwell in unholy temples;

(C2) neither can filthiness or anything which is unclean be received into the kingdom of God;

(C3) therefore I say unto you the time shall come, yea, and it shall be at the last day, that he who is filthy shall remain in his filthiness.

The Lord Himself uses this instructive, repetition-based structure, as seen in 3 Nephi 30:2.

"(A1) Turn all ye Gentiles from your wicked ways; and (A2) repent of you evil doings."

The two phrases in this passage are synonymous since the verbs “turn” and “repent” are linked through the Hebrew verb lah-SHOOV לָשׁוּב , which means to repent, turn, turn away from, go back.

The next examples are of Antithetic Parallelism. One is a familiar poetic passage from Ecclesiastes Chapter 3 (it’s so familiar in part because the rock band The Byrds used it as the lyrical foundation for their 1965 hit “Turn! Turn! Turn!”), while the second scripture is from Proverbs 13:1-6.

To every thing there is a season,

and a time to every purpose under the heaven:

A time to be born,

and a time to die; (death is antithetical to birth, life)
a time to plant,

and a time to pluck up that which is planted; (weeding is the opposite of planting)

In the following verses from Proverbs, I’ve highlighted the opposing elements from each line (couplet).

A wise son heareth (obeyeth) his father’s instruction: but a scorner heareth not (pays no attention to) rebuke.

A man shall eat good by the fruit of his mouth: but the soul of the transgressors shall eat violence.

He that keepeth his mouth keepeth (saveth) his life: but he that openeth wide his lips shall have destruction.

The soul of the sluggard desireth, and hath nothing: but the soul of the diligent shall be made fat (healthy/abundant).

A righteous man hateth lying: but a wicked man is loathsome, and cometh to shame.

Righteousness keepeth (saveth) him that is upright in the way: but wickedness overthroweth the sinner.

The next verses, which come from the Book of Mormon, also include Antithetic Parallelism.   

The one raised to happiness according to his desires of happiness, or good according to his desires of good; and the other to evil according to his desires of evil; for as he has desired to do evil all the day long even so shall he have his reward of evil when the night cometh. (Alma 41:5)

In the next reference, the word-for-word parallelism only becomes antithetical (oppositional) once we get to the contrasting verbs and direct objects, which I've indentified with B and C labels. The phrases' subjects, or A labeled elements, are examples of synonymous parallelism:

Behold, my soul (A1)  abhorreth (B1) sin (C1), and my heart (A2) delighteth (B2) in righteousness (C2);  - 2 Nephi 9:49)

The next group of scriptural quotations demonstrate Climactic Parallelism, a device that can be more difficult to detect in some cases. Outlining these passages in staircase-form helps reveal this poetic element more clearly. The first example comes from Psalms 23. The staircase builds upward from left to right, culminating with a apex phrase (4) that makes the strongest statement in the thread.

                                                           (4) and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.

                                       (3) Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life:

                      (2) thou anointest my head with oil; my cup runneth over.

(Step 1) Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies:

In this passage, the statements detailing the Lord’s favor towards the author gradually escalate from simple protection, to anointing, to the extension God’s mercy, to entrance into His Kingdom.

The following Book of Mormon verse includes an illustration of “Descending” Climactic Parallelism.  Notice that each phrase describes a further step down the path that ends in complete spiritual destruction. (See Alma 12:11)

And they that will harden their hearts, (this statement defines the group that will be effected by the following consequences)

                (Step 1) to them is given the lesser portion of the word

                                (2) until they know nothing concerning his mysteries;

                                                (3) and then they are taken captive by the devil,

                                                                (4) and led by his will down to destruction.

Now this is what is meant by the chains of hell.(Concluding summary statement.)

The Lord's message to the spiritually unresponsive found in Doctrine and Covenants 43:5 is a much more complex example of Climactic Parallelism. Here He uses three subgroups of this poetic device within one verse, with each detailing a different way God calls us to repentance. Group A focuses on verbal preaching, Group B on physical warnings, and Group C lists spiritual enticements/rewards associated with repentance.

                                                                (3) and by mine own voice,

                                (2) and by the ministering of angels,

(Step 1) How oft have I called upon you by the mouth of my servants,

Servants are lower in rank than angels, who in turn are lower than God.

                                                                (5) and by the voice of famines and pestilences of every kind,

                                                (4) and by the voice of earthquakes, and great hailstorms,

                                (3) and by the voice of tempests,

                (2) and by the voice of lightnings,

(Step 1) and by the voice of thunderings,

                                 

The progression in Group B is from minor to major threats to human life and safety, with famine being the most severe.

                                                                                                                                                               

                                                                (5) and would have saved you with an everlasting salvation,

                                                (4) and by the voice of glory and honor and the riches of eternal life,

                                (3) and by the voice of mercy all the day long,

                (2) and by the voice of judgment,

(Step 1) and by the great sound of a trump,                        (6) but ye would not!                                                                                                                                                                                                 

Group C is a series of escalating spiritual invitations, including a call to enter into Eternal Life. Then in dramatic contrast, line 6 bluntly affirms that the wicked will ultimately reject God’s mercy. This type of literary structuring makes the final contrasting statement (# 6) all the more effective at capturing the reader's attention. 

Chiasmus (Inverted Parallelism)

Ezekiel 33:11 contains a simple chiasm that demonstrates the basic pattern of inverting the order of synonymous or related concepts.

Say unto them, As I live, saith the Lord God, (preface statement that’s not part of the chiasm)

(A) I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked; (“A” theme = God does not delight in punishing His children)

       (B) but that the wicked turn from his way and live: (“B" theme = God delights in saving the  penitent)

                                (Now the order is inverted.)

       (B) turn ye, turn ye from your evil ways; (Repentance message is “re”-presented again)

(A) for why will ye die, O house of Israel? (Same with the “A” theme now, using different wording)

This next example of chiasmus is much more complex in structure. It comes from the account of King Benjamin’s discourse found in the Book of Mormon. (See Mosiah 5:10-12)

 (A) And now it shall come to pass, that whosoever shall not take upon him the name of Christ

        (B) must be called by some other name; therefore, he findeth himself on the left hand of God.

                (C) And I would that ye should remember also, that this is the name that I said I should give unto you that never should be blotted out,

                             (D) except it be through transgression;                                                 

                             (D) therefore, take heed that ye do not transgress,

                (C) that the name be not blotted out of your hearts.

        (B) I say unto you, I would that ye should remember to retain the name written always in your hearts, that ye are not found on the left hand of God,

(A) but that ye hear and know the voice by which ye shall be called, and also, the name by which he shall call you.

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Additional Notes:

1) For a more comprehensive article on Biblical Hebrew poetic devices, visit this link: Biblical Poetry

2) This next link explores chiasmus in the Book of Mormon: Chiasmus in the Book of Mormon

3) I didn’t give examples of alliteration or paronomasia in this post because (like I mentioned earlier) these poetic elements can only be identified by reading passages in the original language, so we can’t pull examples from the Book of Mormon or the Pearl of Great Price for comparison's sake. Just to show how these elements function in Biblical Hebrew, I’ll give one example from The Old Testament. In 1 Samuel chapter 2, the prophetess Deborah records a beautiful prayer of praise that’s full of poetic elements, some of which are phonetically based. For example, in the 3^rd verse she uses a rhythmic cadence coupled with a rhyming scheme, a relatively rare occurrence in Biblical Hebrew. The sentence’s translation reads:

“Talk no more so exceeding proudly;” which literally means something along the lines of “Don’t enlarge or increase your speech to an exceeding height.” 

   אַל-תַּרְבּוּ תְדַבְּרוּ גְּבֹהָה גְבֹהָהAl tar-BOO teh-dah-BROO gah-VOH-ah gah-VOH-ah.

In the first part of the sentence we see the jumbled repetition of the T-B-R consonant cluster (alliteration) that turns into a play on words (paronomasia), with the word-pun being between speech and increase or excess (talking too much or arrogantly). This is followed by a case of reduplication, or the back-to-back repetition of a word to intensify its meaning. Deborah repeats the adjective gah-VOH-ah (which means “high,” “elevated,” or “lofty”) in order to add the idea of “very” or “exceedingly” to "high." 

The Voice of Thunder

One of our favorite pastimes as a family is watching thunderstorms together. While living in Central Texas the 11 plus years that we did, we regularly saw impressive weather fronts roll through our region during the spring and fall months. Even our young children would go outside with us to either the back patio area or under the front door awning (depending on the direction the thunderstorm was approaching from) to storm watch… at least until the lighting got too close or the rain and hail became too heavy. Then we’d retreat to the living room and continue watching from inside the house. Since childhood I’ve viewed lightening and the ensuing thunder as examples of “all things (which) denote there is a God” and “witness that there is a Supreme Creator.” (See Alma 30:44)

The Hebrew word for thunder that’s used in the Old Testament, קוֹל kohl, has a number of additional meanings, including voice, sound, and noise. In Modern Hebrew some of these meanings have been partitioned out and are now represented by words other than kohl. Such is the case with thunder, which is now mostly translated as רַעַם RAH’ahm. One of my favorite descriptive references to thunder from the Old Testament, because of its religious overtones, is found in Exodus 9:28.

“Entreat the Lord (for it is enough) that there be no more mighty thunderings and hail; and I will let you go, and ye shall stay no longer.”

The expression “mighty thunderings” is a loose translation of the theologically based Hebrew phrase קֹלֹת אֱלֹהִים koh-LOHT eh-loh-HEEM, which literally means “voice(s) of God.” This connection between the sound (voice) of thunder and the voice of God appears throughout the Old Testament, the Book of Mormon, and even the Doctrine and Covenants. The following references make up only a partial list of scriptures that show the linkage.

“…what will ye say when the day cometh when the thunders shall utter their voices from the ends of the earth, speaking to the ears of all that live, saying—Repent, and prepare for the great day of the Lord? …lightnings shall streak forth from the east unto the west, and shall utter forth their voices unto all that live, and make the ears of all tingle that hear, saying these words—Repent ye, for the great day of the Lord is come? How oft have I called upon you by the mouth of my servants, and by the ministering of angels, and by mine own voice, and by the voice of thunderings…” (Doctrine and Covenants, Section 43:21-25, excerpts with emphasis added) 

“Yea, I would declare unto every soul, as with the voice of thunder, repentance and the plan of redemption, that they should repent and come unto our God, that there might not be more sorrow upon all the face of the earth. But behold, I am a man, and do sin in my wish; for I ought to be content with the things which the Lord hath allotted unto me.” (Alma 29:2-3)

The above Book of Mormon reference is especially interesting to me since the Hebrew language link between thunder and the phrase “voice of God” seems to come into play here. The prophet Alma back-pedals from his original statement “I would declare unto every soul, as with the voice of thunder…” because he apparently feels his aspiration is presumptuous. His subsequent admission “I am a man, and do sin in my wish” implies that even in his unique Semitic-origin language, declaring something “as with the voice of thunder” was equivalent to speaking with the authority and voice of God. As if to emphasize this point, the prophet's second statement contrasts the power of God with his own human weakness.

The following are other Book of Mormon references:

“Ye are swift to do iniquity but slow to remember the Lord your God. Ye have seen an angel, and he spake unto you; yea, ye have heard his voice from time to time; and he hath spoken unto you in a still small voice, but ye were past feeling, that ye could not feel his words; wherefore, he has spoken unto you like unto the voice of thunder, which did cause the earth to shake as if it were to divide asunder.” (1 Nephi 17:45)

“And behold, he spake unto us, as it were the voice of thunder, and the whole earth did tremble beneath our feet; and we all fell to the earth, for the fear of the Lord came upon us.” (Alma 36:7)“But behold, the Lord in his great mercy sent his angel to declare unto me that I must stop the work of destruction among his people; yea, and I have seen an angel face to face, and he spake with me, and his voice was as thunder, and it shook the whole earth.” (Alma 38:7)

“And as I said unto you, as they were going about rebelling against God, behold, the angel of the Lord appeared unto them; and he descended as it were in a cloud; and he spake as it were with a voice of thunder, which caused the earth to shake upon which they stood.” (Mosiah 27:11)

I’ll end my post on this topic with another example of Hebraisms in the Book of Mormon. There’s an idiomatic phrase found in the book of 3 Nephi that uses the traditional Biblical Hebrew-origin meaning of קוֹל kohl (thunder, voice, sound, and noise), demonstrating in this case the specific linkage between noise and voice.

“And it was noised abroad among the people immediately, before it was yet dark, that the multitude had seen Jesus, and that he had ministered unto them, and that he would also show himself on the morrow unto the multitude. Yea, and even all the night it was noised abroad concerning Jesus; and insomuch did they send forth unto the people that there were many, yea, an exceedingly great number, did labor exceedingly all that night, that they might be on the morrow in the place where Jesus should show himself unto the multitude.” (3 Nephi 19:2-3)

The figure of speech “noised abroad” used here is related to kohl in that the people voiced or communicated with others the events that had taken place.

The Word and the Sword

"For the word of God is quick, and powerful, and sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of soul and spirit, and of the joints and marrow, and is a discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart."

 Hebrews 4:12

When studying the scriptures, readers often come across ideas or words that are metaphorically linked over and over again to the point where it becomes obvious the connection isn't accidental. In many cases these connections are linguistic ones that were already established thousands of years ago in Hebrew or other Semitic languages, or even possibly in the first language that Adam and Eve used with their children. What’s especially exciting to me is that the Lord continued using some of these metaphorical linkages even while dictating revelations to his prophets in English during the early days of the Restoration, so that the original Semitic language connection remains for His instructive purposes.

One example that appears regularly throughout all four books of the LDS Church’s Standard Works is the metaphorical link between word/mouth and sword/a sword’s edge. The word for “mouth, word, commandment, opening, aperture” in Hebrew, פֶּה peh, is the same one used for “edge of a sword”. The dual meanings bridge again in the word פִּיפִיָה pee-fee-YAH, which signifies “sharp edge” or “mouth”. 

Starting with the Old Testament, I’ll list some verses where the word=sword simile is used for instructive as well as creative purposes.

Old Testament

And he hath made my mouth like a sharp sword (Isaiah 49:2)

New Testament

And take the helmet of salvation, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God. (Ephesians 6:17)

And to the angel of the church in Pergamos write; These things saith he which hath the sharp sword with two edges… Repent; or else I will come unto thee quickly, and will fight against them with the sword of my mouth. (Revelation 2:12, 16)

The Book of Mormon

And the Lord is near, and he justifieth me. Who will contend with me? Let us stand together. Who is mine adversary? Let him come near me, and I will smite him with the strength of my mouth. (2 Nephi 7:8)

And now, as the preaching of the word had a great tendency to lead the people to do that which was just—yea, it had had more powerful effect upon the minds of the people than the sword, or anything else, which had happened unto them—therefore Alma thought it was expedient that they should try the virtue of the word of God. (Alma 31:5)

I love this example in particular because Alma uses the historical literary connection between word and sword in the verse but then turns the analogy upside down by setting the word and the sword in opposition to one another! 

(Also see Jacob 2:5, Helaman 5:30, and 3 Nephi 11:3)

Doctrine and Covenants

Behold, I am God; give heed unto my word, which is quick and powerful, sharper than a two-edged sword, to the dividing asunder of both joints and marrow; therefore give heed unto my words. (Doctrine and Covenants, Section 6:2)

In addition to referencing the Hebrew-related dual meanings of word and sword, this verse also includes the literary device chiasmus (chiasm), which appears frequently throughout the scriptures. To make this example of chiasm more easily recognizable, I've highlighted and labeled (with letters) the parallel elements that appear in inverted order. The two references to God's word at the beginning and end of the verse effectively frame the word "sword", which is centered perfectly at the middle.

Behold, I am God; give heed unto my word (A), which is quick and powerful, sharper than a two-edged sword (B), to the dividing asunder of both joints and marrow; therefore give heed unto my words (A).

(Also see D.C. 11:2, 12:2, and 14:2)

Outside of the Biblical Hebrew context, these passages are still easily open to interpretation and application since the word=sword metaphor has been used for centuries in literature. But knowing the common linguistic roots of these words has helped me better understand how our Father speaks in a uniform way throughout the ages.  

The Parable of “The Lost Son”

A few months ago I was studying Modern Hebrew verb forms when I came across an interesting bit of information that led me to some deeper scripture study and, later, to create this blog post. One of the best features of the dictionary I was reading, Barron’s 501 Hebrew Verbs, is that it includes a list of examples of common phases or sayings related to each verb. On this occasion I was reviewing the verb leh-eh-VOHD (לֶאֱבוֹד), which means “to lose, be lost, perish, stray, die, cease.” At the bottom of the page I came across a phrase from the New Testament that caught my attention. It was the Hebrew term for the Lord’s parable of The Prodigal Son, הבן האובד (ha-ben ha-oh-VEHD), which literally means The Lost Son.

I had never come across this unique interpretation before. After some thought and rereading of this well-known parable, I discovered that I like the Hebrew Language title much more than I do the English one. I know this is just one person’s opinion, but I’ll give a few reasons why I prefer the Hebrew language interpretation as The Lost Son.

Reason #1: For me, at least, this parable has much more to do with the youngest son's state of being (at first lost, then found) than it does the particulars of his misbehavior (the prodigal part), so I think the Hebrew title captures best what was at stake for the young man in this parable and, by way of personal application, for us. We could substitute any number of our own misdeeds for what this child has done, and the core themes of repentance, forgiveness, redemption, and God’s immeasurable grace and graciousness would still play out the same in the story. So the fact that he was prodigal (“irresponsibly or extravagantly wasteful”, according to the dictionary definition) really has little to do the parable’s key message(s).

Also, it’s apparent that the source of the father’s worry isn’t that that his child has spent away his portion of the family’s hard-earned inheritance. The father doesn’t mention this point once throughout the whole narrative. As with any conscientious parent who has observed his children’s behavior over the years, this father certainly knew what his boy would do with the inheritance once he gained control of it. In contrast, the Lord twice emphasizes that the father’s focal concern was that his son had fallen into a lost state of spiritual death. The former source of his pain and later source of his joy was that “this my son was dead, and is alive again; he was lost, and is found.” (See Luke 15:24 and 32.) Instead of focusing the reader’s attention on this central point, the English title, The Prodigal Son, tends to place it specifically on the child’s character flaws, as opposed to the condition his spiritual deficiencies have led him to.

Reason #2: The title The Lost Son speaks to a significant doctrinal truth that the English title leaves out – that being lost in the spiritual sense is equivalent to finding ourselves in a state of pending separation from God and our expanded Eternal family unless we turn back through repentance. I remember one occasion when I became lost in a public place as a very young child. The few minutes of separation from my parents that I experienced were extremely frightening and disorienting.  The irony is that I was surrounded by people, but because all of them were strangers I still felt immeasurably alone. This event reminds me that perhaps the most defining element of being lost is finding oneself surrounded by the unfamiliar (i.e., unconnected to family), which in a literal and spiritual sense is what happened to The Lost Son. The root of the word unfamiliar originates from the Latin familiaris, which means “domestic, private, belonging to a family, of a household". 

Through his misdeeds, the younger son had cut himself off from his father’s household, and consequently found himself lost in a state of literal and spiritual unfamiliarity. As with all of us, his need to be connected to someone or something while in exile was so strong that he “he went and joined himself to a citizen of that (far) country” (ibid., vs. 15) in a type of false-familiarity. In the end, though, it was no substitute for the full association and sense of belonging that he had previously enjoyed with his family. After an undefined time in his lost condition, the child finally “comes to himself” and is later reinstated to his former position via several symbolic tokens of royalty. (See vs. 17 and 22, and Genesis 41:42)

A Biblical Hebrew Take on Marriage

There’s a Biblical English figure of speech related to marriage that I used to think was odd and confusing. This expression, “to take to wife”, appears regularly throughout the King James Version of the Old Testament. One reason the phrase sounds so foreign to English-speakers is because it’s a literal word-for-word translation of the Biblical Hebrew phrase לקחת לאישה (lah-KAH-khat leh-ee-SHAH). In modern English, the most common expression we’d use now for “to take to wife” is “to marry”. Here are just a few of many examples of the archaic phrasing that can be found in the Old Testament:

And there went a man of the house of Levi, and took to wife a daughter of Levi. (Exodus 2:1)

“When a man hath taken a new wife, he shall not go out to war, neither shall he be charged with any business: but he shall be free at home one year, and shall cheer up his wife which he hath taken.” (Deuteronomy 24:5)

At first glance, the wording “to take to wife” can appear chauvinistic and demeaning since the act of taking something or someone implies the use of force, reducing the one being taken to the status of a subject (at best) or an object (at worst). On closer examination, though, it turns out that this idiom is anything but sexist. At the center of this phrase is the Hebrew verb לָקַחַת (lah-KAH-khat), which has various meanings, depending on the context. The most common translations are “to take, grasp, or seize”, but it also means “to receive” – the more accurate translation as it relates to marriage. So an alternate reading of the Biblical idiom “to take to wife” is “to receive to wife”.

Two parallel scriptural passages that detail the same event – the Lord “taking/receiving” the City of Enoch to Himself – demonstrate the interchangeability of these seemingly incompatible meanings. The first reference is from the Doctrine and Covenants, while the second is from the Book of Moses:

“I am the same which have taken the Zion of Enoch into mine own bosom; and verily, I say, even as many as have believed in my name, for I am Christ, and in mine own name, by the virtue of the blood which I have spilt, have I pleaded before the Father for them.” (D.C. 38:4, emphasis added)

“Enoch and all his people walked with God, and he dwelt in the midst of Zion; and it came to pass that Zion was not, for God received it up into his own bosom; and from thence went forth the saying, Zion is Fled.” (Moses 7:69, emphasis added)

The more accurate English rendering of this Hebrew-language idiom as "to receive to wife" affirms that both womanhood and marriage were highly respected and considered sacred by the ancient Israelites and in Patriarchal Era family groups. Receiving someone into an association or relationship signified honor, love, respect, and acceptance. For example, the Lord, as the Spiritual Bridegroom of the faithful who love Him, receives His spiritually begotten sons and daughters with honor into a closer association with Himself.

“And the Father and I are one. I am in the Father and the Father in me; and inasmuch as ye have received me, ye are in me and I in you.” (Doctrine and Covenants 50:43)

We receive Him in covenant, and He in turn receives us into an eventual full association in fulfillment of that same covenant.

Applying this idea back to marriage, I now read Old Testament passages that include the phrasing “took to wife” in a very different light. By receiving one another in covenant, both husband and wife pledge their best efforts and best selves to nurturing their relationship. By the same token, it follows that they also receive each another at marriage, faults and deficiencies included, with an implied commitment to help one another overcome them. “Receiving to wife/husband” in this sense might be one of the best gifts spouses can give each other.

The Mind vs. the Heart: A Biblical Hebrew Perspective

And he said unto them, “Set your hearts unto all the words which I testify among you this day, which ye shall command your children to observe to do, all the words of this law.”

Deuteronomy 32:46

One of the things I love most about studying linguistics is learning how East vs. West cultural and world-view differences often surface in language.

For example, in Western thinking it’s the mind that’s most often referenced in literature as the controlling agent of human thought, desires, and behavior. On the other hand, in Middle Eastern culture and language it’s primarily the heart that takes on these duties. This becomes especially evident in the use of adverbs and in certain figures of speech. In Romance (Latin origin) languages, variations of the Latin word for “mind” (mens) are regularly attached to the end of adjectives in order to create adverbs that end in -ly in English. I’ve highlighted the suffixed variations of mens in the following Romance language translations for happily:

French – heureusement

Italian – felicemente

Spanish and Portuguese – felizmente

These Latin-based words literally mean “happy minded” or “of a happy mind”. Other examples of adverbs in Spanish that follow this same formula of adjective + variant of mens (mente) = adverb include:

lentamente = slowly, or literally “of a slow mind” or “slow-minded”

completamente = completely, or lit. “complete-minded”

lógicamente = logically, or lit. “of a logical mind”

In contrast, Hebrew adverbs are built much more often around the word “heart” (לֵב lev) than the word for "mind" (נֶפֶשׁ NEH-fesh). Here are some common examples:

בְּחֵפֶץ לֵב be-KHE-fetz lev – willingly, or lit. “with a desiring heart”

בְּתוֹם לֵב be-TOHM lev – in good faith, lit. “with a complete, perfect heart”

When discussing matters of the heart in Hebrew and other Semitic languages, it's rarely associated with romantic interest, which is more of a Western cultural-linguistic association. As seen in the examples I provided above, in Hebrew the heart is most often linked to the human will, motives, desires, thoughts, and mental attention or focus – the core of what influences our behavior(s). So when Biblical Hebrew writers used the word heart, it was rarely linked to emotions.

Here's an example that helps underline this point. The following is a common phrase in both Biblical and Modern Hebrew that literally means “to set or place one’s heart on (something or someone)”, but its figurative, practical meaning is “to focus intently on, to regard, or to pay close attention to.”

…לְ לָשִׂים לֵב (lah-SEEM lev leh…)

One of many examples of this saying that appear in the Old Testament can be found in Exodus 9:21. In the original Hebrew, this passage literally reads "And he that placed not his heart on...", but as you'll see below, this idiomatic phrase was translated here into the common meaning "regarded not".

And he that regarded not (שָׂם לִבּוֹ לֹא loh sahm lee-BOH) the word of the Lord left his servants and his cattle in the field.

Again, this metaphorical use of the word "heart" has little to do with emotional attachment or love; instead it centers on the mind, and mental and spiritual exertions of will. In the verse from Deuteronomy that I included at the top of this post, the Hebrew meaning of “set your hearts” is to focus unwaveringly on and to pay close attention “unto all the words which I testify among you this day.” One of the few exceptions to this rule of disconnection between emotion/affection(s) and the Hebrew-based figure of speech “to place, set one’s heart on” (lah-SEEM lev leh…) appears in the Book of Mormon. 

Yea, and cry unto God for all thy support; yea, let all thy doings be unto the Lord, and whithersoever thou goest let it be in the Lord; yea, let all thy thoughts be directed unto the Lord; yea, let the affections of thy heart be placed upon the Lord forever. (Alma 37:36, emphasis added)

Here the figure of speech still works, though, since the prophet-writer is communicating the idea that our affections or love should always be focused on the Lord. In other places where this metaphor appears in the Book of Mormon, and throughout the Old Testament for that matter, it’s usually associated with the spiritual danger of focusing our attention inappropriately on material wealth. I’ve listed several examples below.

Trust not in oppression, and become not vain in robbery: if riches increase, set not your heart (i.e., don’t focus inordinately) upon them. (Psalms 62:10) 

And thus, in their prosperous circumstances, they did not send away any who were naked, or that were hungry, or that were athirst, or that were sick, or that had not been nourished; and they did not set their hearts upon riches; therefore they were liberal to all, both old and young, both bond and free, both male and female, whether out of the church or in the church, having no respect to persons as to those who stood in need. (Alma 1:30)

(Also see Mosiah 12:29, Alma 5:53, Alma 7:6, Helaman 7:21, and Helaman 12:4.)

My final illustration of the Hebrew usage of  the heart as a fountain of rational thought, knowledge and wisdom appears in Exodus 36:2. The English translation reads:

And Moses called Bezaleel and Aholiab, and every wise hearted man (אִישׁ חֲכַם-לֵב ish khah-KHAHM lev), in whose heart the Lord had put wisdom, even every one whose heart stirred him up to come unto the work to do it.

So evidently it's not just the mind (brain) that acts as the repository of rational thought or intelligence, unless the Lord is only speaking metaphorically in these types of passages. On the other hand, if this verse and others like it are to be taken literally, this may be a case of science finally catching up with spiritual and scriptural truth. Some recent heart function studies now indicate that not only does the brain send neural and chemical transmissions to the heart, but the opposite is also true - the heart communicates with the brain and directly influences its activities by these same means. See the link below for an interesting read on this topic.

Let Your Heart Talk to Your Mind

Living Waters

This post has to do with both Hebraisms in modern scripture and Hebrew language metaphors that Christ used to teach gospel doctrines during His ministry. As with parables, the reason these metaphors were (and still are) so effective as teaching tools is that spiritual truths can be packaged symbolically in common elements of our daily experience. 

One of these metaphors is fresh water. Hebrew uses two main phrases for the term “fresh (as opposed to salt) water”. The first phrase is the contemporary Hebrew expression, while the second is the Biblical term.

מתוקים מים (MY-eem meh-too-KEEM) – Literally, “sweet waters”

חיים מים (MY-eem KHY-eem) – Literally, “living waters”

(Notice that both Hebrew phrases use the pluralized form “waters” to describe a body or source of water. The singular form מי, pronounced mey, is the Hebrew word for water as an element or in other generic references.)

In Jeremiah 2:13 we find one example of this older Hebrew term for “fresh water”:

“For my people have committed two evils ; they have forsaken me the fountain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water.” (Emphasis added)

  כִּי-שְׁתַּיִם רָעוֹת, עָשָׂה עַמִּי:אֹתִי עָזְבוּ מְקוֹר מַיִם חַיִּים, לַחְצֹב לָהֶם בֹּארוֹת, בֹּארֹת נִשְׁבָּרִים, אֲשֶׁר לֹא-יָכִלוּ הַמָּיִם.

In the scriptures, Christ’s words and doctrines are often associated with “living” or fresh water, an analogy that would have resonated strongly with the people Christ taught in the Middle East since fresh water was (and still is) a valued commodity in that mostly arid region. Ironically, the Holy Land is surrounded by, or has within its borders, many large bodies of water (the Mediterranean Sea, the Dead Sea, the Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba, etc.), but all of them are briny except for one – the Sea of Galilee. I think it’s interesting that this unique, immense source of fresh (“living”) water is located in the region where the Savior was raised and began His early ministry. The connection may be a simple coincidence, but we find many links between the Lord’s life, His pure doctrines and references to fresh water in the scriptures. Just as daily fluid intake is essential to our physical survival, the “living waters” of Christ’s doctrinal teachings and His love, represented by “the fountain of living (fresh) waters” in Lehi’s dream (see 1 Nephi 11:25), sustain us spiritually day after day.

Sea of Galilee

With the exception of the Sea of Galilee, all other fresh water in the region had to be extracted from wells or the river networks that flow within the borders of Israel. In John, chapter 4 we read about Christ’s instructive encounter with the woman of Samaria at a well. Verses 10-14 read:

“Jesus answered and said unto her, If thou knewest the gift of God, and who it is that saith to thee, Give me to drink; thou wouldest have asked of him, and he would have given thee living water.

The woman saith unto him, Sir, thou hast nothing to draw with, and the well is deep: from whence then hast thou that living water? Art thou greater than our father Jacob, which gave us the well, and drank thereof himself, and his children, and his cattle?

Jesus answered and said unto her, Whosoever drinketh of this water shall thirst again: But whosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give him shall never thirst; but the water that I shall give him shall be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting life.”

How appropriate that the Source of spiritual living water taught these doctrines while sitting by a well!

To further expand the analogy, the Lord often references “bitter fountains” in His teachings given through Biblical prophets and His apostles. A “bitter fountain (spring, source of water)” was one that had brackish (salt) water seeping into it, contaminating what was previously fresh (“living”) water and effectively rendering it harmful and useless. The invasive salt water can represent false or tainted teachings and practices that infiltrate and contaminate the pure, living doctrines of Christ. (See Exodus 15:23-25 and James 3:11.)

This metaphor was also used by Book of Mormon prophet-writers and later by Christ in revelations given through Joseph Smith. Not only has the Lord continued using this reference for instructional purposes, but it’s noteworthy that He also uses the pluralized Semitic-origin term “living waters” and “waters of life” (instead of the singular “living water”), providing yet another example of Hebraisms that can be found in the Book of Mormon and the Doctrine and Covenants. (See Alma 5:34, Alma 42:27, and Doctrine and Covenants 10:66 as examples.)